How often have we heard that we do not have time to do root cause analysis (RCA)? This is certainly the paradigm from those closest to the work, especially if they operate in a reactive culture. What about when we hear that RCA is too expensive? This is generally the paradigm from management, or those farthest from the work.

What is common about these two perspectives? Both perceptions represent reality because if that is what we believe, then our decisions will be made on that basis. So how do we overcome this hurdle of letting our paradigms prevent us from taking advantage of opportunities?

Opposing paradigms: operations vs. finance
Let’s explore this issue from two different perspectives: operational and financial. The operational people are those who are closest to the work and are responsible for maximizing the output of the organization. In this world, a reactive culture usually dominates. So whether we are making paper, processing patients, or dealing with customer complaints, we are likely dealing with the moment and handling one fire at a time.

In this world it is difficult to listen to people who advocate an activity like RCA because as it stands now, there does not seem to be enough time in a day to do our current job. Now someone wants us to perform another task, RCA, when our plates are already full. Let’s face it: this is the reality when working at this level. We do not see RCA as a solution to our already overburdened work schedule. We see RCA as a nuisance to being able to fight fires in the short-term.

Contrast this perspective against the financial one. Management level people are typically the ones that are charged with fiscal responsibility. So their world is one of numbers, statistics, and ultimately dollars. When people approach them about the concept of RCA, the first issue in their mind is: "How much is this going to cost?" Again, this is their world.

Usually in this world the first question is not "What value proposition does RCA bring to the table?" In the financial world we are dictated to by the budget, and no matter how attractive the opportunity, the cost in relation to the budget will be one of the major deciding factors. Sometimes our performance evaluations will reward us for staying within the budget, so there is a personal incentive to view everything from the cost standpoint versus the value standpoint.

What happens when these two worlds collide? We become risk aversive in our decision-making and our operations. When this happens we hang out in the safety zone and if we are lucky, we make marginal improvements over time. Creativity is stifled and we become human robots doing nothing more or less than we are told.

The facts about RCA
RCA is not a tool that is related to any specific industry; it is specific to human beings. We all come with the same equipment; we have brains that are wired to use inductive and deductive logic to think things through and solve problems, no matter what the problem. This must be realized and accepted in order to disprove those that believe that RCA is a tool for only mechanical situations or only for an industrial plant. We as human beings will use the same mental faculties to solve why a crude unit in an oil refinery failed as to why the cable does not work on the upstairs television.

Any RCA methodology on the market today must hang its hat on the science behind cause and effect relationships. The only difference between RCA methods is the manner in which they graphically represent these cause and effect relationships and how well these hypotheses are proven to be true or false.

So how do we build a convincing argument that supports why we should be permitted (if not required) to do RCA? We all know that the decision to pursue this RCA task will come from management, as they will have to authorize the funds to train employees and allow them time to practice what they learn. Therefore we must appeal to the financial perspective in order to get the ball rolling in the operations world.

Chronic events
What is the best way to demonstrate future trends in spending? Given everything constant, the past. We have all heard of the definition of insanity—doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different result. The same is typical with spending trends. In industry, what is usually a large category in any maintenance budget? The one labeled "General" or "Routine." This is like the "Other" category. This is a reservoir for all expected, unexpected events.

These are the items that have fallen into the cost of doing business paradigm. They are typically small in individual consequence, and they do not hurt people or violate any regulations. They just retire into the pasture of the budget and are never questioned. From year to year we review the past spending on such items and bump it up a little for the cost of living increase.

If we can agree in concept up until this point, then let’s try to now express this in a graphical and financial manner. This is how we prepare our business case to management in an effort to sell the concept of RCA.

First, in order to convince management to invest in an RCA effort, we must present the opportunities that are available. In the RCA world, opportunities are generally expressed in terms of current losses experienced. With this in mind, let’s picture a scenario we can all relate to from past experience at some point in our careers.

Developing an RCA business case
For example, we work in a continuous process manufacturing operation. The nature of the product is irrelevant. This operation produces a high-margin product in a sold out market. Simply put, we can sell anything we can make. In this environment, what should be the most appropriate definition of a loss? Is it when equipment breaks down? Is it when the operation stops?

Step 1–Identifying the scope of the analysis. In making our business case, we want our presentation to have the utmost impact. Therefore, we need to seek out the area with the greatest opportunities available. This is usually the area referred to as the bottleneck of the operation.

The bottleneck is the typically weak link and we all know that the operation can only be as strong as its weakest link. Everyone usually knows which operation is the weakest link in any organization. For our purposes, we need to identify what this operation is, where it begins, and where it ends (Fig. 1). This will be the scope of our analysis for our business case.

Step 2–Defining a loss in the current economic environment. Now with the scope of the analysis defined, we can move on to understanding what is most important to measure in this operation. Since we can sell all we can make, the most important factor to the business is reliability of the operation. This means that a lost downtime hour is far more important than a spare piece of equipment that fails.

Remember, this is under the conditions described earlier. To set our focus, we will define a loss for our facility as any event or condition that interrupts the continuity of maximum quality production.

Step 3–Mapping out the weakest link. To help identify specific events that occur within the weakest link operation, we must draw a simple process flow block diagram. A block diagram easily maps out the flow of the product through the operation.

Step 4–Determining the potential gains. Based on this weakest link, what is its design capacity versus what it is actually producing? If the system is capable of producing 1 million tons per year and we, on average, are producing only 850,000 tons per year, then the opportunity lies in the difference or 150,000 tons.

Since this is a high margin product, when we cannot sell each pound, we lose the margin. For example, let’s say that we can make a $100/T margin. Therefore, the financial opportunity is 150,000 tons x $100/T = $15 million.

Step 5–Locating the losses. Now that we know there is $15 million out there for the taking, how do we identify where it is? We simply take the information we have collected and develop a spreadsheet to make our data collection efforts easier. We need to locate the events that are preventing us from reaching our potential. An appropriate spreadsheet may have column headings including Subsystem, Event, Mode, Frequency, Impact/Occurrence, and Total Annual Loss.

Where does the most reliable data come from to fill out such a spreadsheet? This is up to you. If you feel that your computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) is accurate enough to reflect the true activities of the field, then you should use it as your data source. If you do not, then you should contact the source of raw data: the people.

Oftentimes we do not realize that people are the most common sources of data input into databases. When events in the field occur so often, and they take short periods of time to repair, the effort to put them in recording systems outweighs the time it took to fix them. The end result: they do not make it into the recording systems and they remain in the heads of those that fixed the problems. Such events are hidden gold and the only way to find them is to talk to those closest to the work.

Step 6–Identifying the significant few. Imagine our spreadsheet with dozens or hundreds of events listed (depending on the size of the operation). When do we know when we are done? End the list when the Total Annual Loss column totals ±10 percent of the target identified (difference between actual production and potential).

Now that we have this wealth of information, how do we finalize our business case? Take the total of the Total Annual Loss column and multiply it by 80 percent. Then sort the events from the highest to the lowest total annual loss and see how many events it takes to add up to 80 percent of total annual losses. Typically, 20 percent or less of the events will be accountable for 80 percent or more of the losses.

Step 7–Finalizing the business case. From this exercise we can see that it is possible to pinpoint the specific events that are causing the greatest losses. Contrary to popular belief, the majority of these Significant Few events are chronic events versus sporadic ones.

This process has the unique capability of bubbling the chronic events to the top of the list, which otherwise go unnoticed because of their seemingly insignificant individual impacts. However, when aggregated over a year’s time, this analysis shows what is truly important.

Step 8–Calculating return on investment (ROI). We now can take all these elements of the business case process and roll them into a report for our management presentation. We can prove that the cost of training a team in RCA and focusing them on the Significant Few can yield a significant predetermined result.

We can easily calculate a proposed ROI that will be astounding. We have backed up all our claims and support our findings with evidence (hard data). Average ROIs for RCA range between 600 and 1000 percent. Oftentimes this is a hard sell because the numbers are so unbelievable, but using this process supports the case.

We did not attempt to hide any of the real costs of conducting a RCA. If there are more, then they should be added. RCA will require a little education and some software to help organize the effort. It is expected that a minimum class of 15 students and a maximum of 25 would be held. This will provide the necessary skills to the team leader, various team members, and supporting management personnel. This is a one-time cost that is sunk thereafter. Then there will be varying levels of dedication to the effort, but ideally there should be a full-time driver who oversees the analyses in progress.

Of course there will be team members needed based on their expertise in the analysis at hand. The make-up of the teams will change because of this. However, with this rotating role, it is expected that only four team members at a time will be occupied on a part-time basis during an analysis.

To provide support for solid conclusions, the RCA teams may need additional engineering support to help prove their hypotheses. The funds for this anticipated function are accounted for.

While this is only an example, we can get the idea. There is no need to beef up costs in such a business case because conservative numbers usually make just as convincing a case. Also, conservative numbers are easy to defend because we can use the fallback position of, "…we didn’t even include… ." Accounting department figures are the most credible because if the origin of these numbers is questioned, we can point to the bean counters as the source.

Now this is such an unbelievable ROI number, even though our data supports it, that we can make the case that if we cut the opportunity in half, the ROI would still be around 3850 percent. What is an acceptable ROI for an engineering project at our facilities now? MT

Robert J. Latino is senior vice-president of strategic development for Reliability Center, Inc., a reliability engineering firm specializing in improving equipment, process, and human reliability, 501 Westover Ave., Hopewell, VA 23860; (804) 458-0645

As a maintenance or engineering person responsible for implementation of a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS), you and your organization represent the functional side of the implementation. The other personnel that are involved with the CMMS are database administrators and the application programmers.

As functional system administrators, you face many challenges working with a CMMS. Two of them are legacy data conversion/migration and report writing.

Database administrator
Database administration typically is handled by a person or department that maintains the database just as the maintenance department maintains the plant. The administrator (often known as a DBA) continually monitors performance parameters, size, and integrity, and performs certain tasks such as backups. Additionally, he makes modifications to the database to support the needs and requirements of the whole system. Most of this terminology will apply best to a CMMS based on a relational database management system (RDBMS), but it has applicability in all CMMSs.

Application programmer
Application programming is involved in what the programs do, and analysis of problems or requested changes. These problems or changes often result in direct interface with the vendor, program changes made locally or by the vendor, new reports, and new behavior of the application. This is typically where changes to screens and database configuration are made.

Functional system administrator
Functional support is key to merging the concepts of how the business process works (work order life cycle, cycle counting, etc.) with the capabilities of the application to support that process. It is important that the functional personnel understand both the process of the facility, as well as how the application works. There are many aspects of how functional personnel meet the challenges of their job; two of those challenges will be discussed: legacy data conversion/migration and report capability and how to enhance it.

Query/reporting tools
Before going into detail, let's discuss the tools to be used to extract data from your CMMS and why they were chosen. First is Microsoft Access because it is widely available, and, more often than not, installed on your desktop PC. It is an underutilized tool and has a serious role for the functional support organization.

Additionally, people with advanced capabilities in Access are typically available in proximity to your location. Computer-based training, videos, and other training options for Access also are readily available. This greatly improves your chances of getting started quickly and effectively.

The next tool is Crystal Reports or Crystal Enterprise. Crystal Reports is a significant player in the decision support software or report writer market, and is widely used. Crystal Enterprise (previously Crystal/Seagate Info depending on the version) is a newer tool that has numerous functions.

In addition to availability and market share as selection criteria for these tools, cost and support are important. Access has remained competitive throughout its growth in the market, and Crystal Enterprise remains competitive with other decision support software tools. You also can check with the vendor of your choice for free demonstration software which is typically a limited time use, full version of the software in question.

Data conversion
Legacy data conversion/migration is a challenge to functional administrators; you need to know how to do it so you can decide whether or not to try it. If you do try it, do so with great care and attention to detail.

Legacy data conversion often requires loading data through the "back door," or directly to the tables, rather than by keying them in on the screens designed for primary or initial entry. This is becoming more important each year for one simple reason—CMMS owners are now replacing their old systems. The maintenance system probably was in a RDBMS in the first place, and even if not, the company has more data in electronic format, which is perceived to be an easy insert into the new, more flexible/adaptable, and better application.

Although this is mostly true, there are a few things to remember. When populating a (theoretically) bug-free CMMS outside of standard programming delivered with the application, problems can crop up and cause great headaches. Three potential problems that are commonly overlooked are properties (size/format) of the fields, population of all fields, and referential integrity that is maintained by code and not by the RDBMS.

• Field size. In simple terms, your old data is in a field that is 75 characters wide, and the new corresponding field is 60 characters. When the data is loaded into the 60-character field, truncation will occur and there will be characters that do not make it in. When you are dealing with 100,000+ lines of text, you may miss the 25,000+ lines that received truncation until you start generating PM work orders and find that the text descriptions are missing something. Size is most important.
• Field format. Generally, whether the field is integer, double/single precision decimal, text, etc., this is often taken into account and is not usually a problem. What falls through the cracks here is case. Upper or mixed case are typical options, and to a database, they are significantly different. Specifically, "a" and "A" have different values, especially when bar coded, sorted, or searched.

Case typically comes into play when the field is uppercase and the data is not. The error shows up when the field is used in a query or report set up for the commercial off-the-shelf version of the application; the vendor designates the field uppercase and the data loaded has mixed or lowercase values.

Challenge: If you can, open your main equipment/machine data table in your Test database. If your data requirement for the equipment number is upper case, change it to mixed or lower case. Confirm your change has been saved and close the table. Open the application and go to the main equipment/machine data screen. Attempt to bring up the equipment record and see what you get.

Populating all fields in a table is recommended, if not required, when loading data. Fields that are required by the database typically will generate an error when a record is loaded without an appropriate value (even when that value is zero). The problem usually occurs when there are fields that are not required by the database configuration, but are required for the practical use of the application. There is also a tendency to concentrate only on fields that will show up on the screen. If the main screen that displays machine data shows only 35 fields, but the main table has 85 fields, you must plan to populate 85 fields, even if you only write "nulls" into them; they must be reviewed for requirements that are practical as well as necessary.

• Referential integrity. Referential integrity is typically covered by the RDBMS in question. Given the machine data table with the machine number as its primary key (a number that is unique in that table), there may be other tables that relate to it by using this primary key. For example, work order data in a one-to-many relationshipone machine may have zero, one, or many work orders.
  • Designate delivery format (html, Word, Excel, rtf, pdf, etc.)
  • Designate destination of delivery (e-mail user, disk file on network, printer, etc.)
  • Designate when to run report including time of day and frequency (every day/week, every X hours/months, first, last, or Nth day of the month, etc.)
  • Send notification of success or failure via e-mail
  • Send text with report if e-mailed

CMMS vendors are not limited to using links to relate the data. They can use programming to ensure the integrity of the data so you do not, for example, create a work order for a machine number that does not exist. When loading legacy data, one must be sure to keep this in mind, and provide additional data to support the functional relationship even if it is not an expressly required field.

The good news and the bad news are now the same. Access can load data into most relational databases through open database connectivity (ODBC). As long as the user has the appropriate security access, queries typically can be created to add, update, or delete rows in the tables. But this same capability can allow the wrong people the same access. Even the right people with access can cause problems if they forget what they can do, and accidentally modify data when they did not mean to.

A last warning: in some systems, especially in legacy mainframe applications, you get the option to not save your work. Or perhaps you hit escape and undo the last record(s) altered; generally, this option is not present, or may be present only for a record, or perhaps even just a field. Be careful, and test, test, test!

Report writing
You will recognize this challenge when you hear such questions as "Can I get a report that shows me?" or "Can I get the reports in Excel, and have them generate off shift and appear on the network?"
Both Access and Crystal can do wondrous things in reporting through ODBC or native drivers. I will attempt to separate them in terms of their functionality and when to use what. For comparison, MS Access 97 and Crystal Reports 8 were considered. Microsoft and Seagate continue to enhance both products with each successive version, further blurring the lines between them when it comes to reporting.

Access provides the capability to store data in one database, and query/ reporting and automation in the same database, or in a completely different database. Further, through macros, you can automate certain functions that can run a query and transfer a small subset of data and calculations onto a network drive in a spreadsheet, which another department may want to access.

Access is also extremely useful in tracking down problems because queries are simple to generate. Conditional formatting is also available to highlight exceptions within a report. Wizards can accelerate the process and assist the user with the creation of more complex queries, reports, forms, and tables. This is especially important as some of these elements have complex programming behind them that can be difficult for both the novice and more experienced users to grasp.

Access also has the capability to create an entire application front end to handle selection of your reports through menus with help screens, etc., because it allows the creation of forms and macros/modules. The forms represent screens and the macros/modules represent automation that exists behind button clicks.

Although Crystal Reports does not have the capability to create a front end application, it does have more powerful report generation capabilities. Both Access and Crystal Reports allow multiple grouping levels in reports, with subtotals. Crystal Reports goes a step further in making that grouping dynamic. That is, while viewing the report, it can be changed from a very detailed report to a summary with two mouse clicks. Further, a drill down tree lets users go through a lengthy report to a specific area and view its summary or detail. If your CMMS comes with a Crystal runtime, you will be able to launch your reports from your CMMS, passing parameters to the report to limit its scope.

Current versions of both applications allow you to save data and deliver an executable to your recipient. This will allow someone to view the report without having either application on the desktop. Although it can be a timesaver, it often can be a disk space or network problem depending on the infrastructure and the size and frequency of the data transfer. To assist in this area, you can use either application to park current data on your network for retrieval on demand.

Training for the tools
Although both Crystal Reports and Access come with wizards to assist in report creation, Crystal is often perceived as more difficult. Two levels of training for both products can best address this perception: technical training on the tool and functional training on the CMMS database structure.

Technical training for the application will explain how to use the tools to generate the reports. This will allow a user to make it presentable; allow for filtering with static (hard coded) or dynamic (entered at runtime) parameters; provide an understanding on delivery formats and what is required to allow someone else to review the report online, etc.

Functional training will provide the understanding of how the fields on the screen relate to the tables and columns and how the tables relate to one another in the database.

One of the greatest features of Access and Crystal Reports is that they both are widely available in the United States and Canada, as well as in other parts of the world. This allows for relatively local technical training to be found quite easily. There are also user groups for both products in many large cities.

Functional training on what goes on behind the scenes in the CMMS, with regard to the tables and fields and their relationships, is much less common.

Some CMMS vendors now are offering training on Crystal Reports and other report writers. Before deciding, make sure the training is specific to writing reports for the application and version you are interested in, as opposed to training you could obtain from the report vendor or training partner.

Further, if you have in-house or contract expertise in the back end of the application, and you are going to bring training in rather than send users out to training, make sure to coordinate with the training vendor. Most do not know your CMMS, but they can learn the basics about its structure. This will allow the documentation they produce, as well as examples, to be specific to your CMMS, and provide more useful training.

Delivering, saving reports
Both applications also allow delivery of reports in numerous formats, including Excel, text (with various delimiters), rich text format (easily read by most current Windows-based word processors), and html which requires only a browser (Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Opera, etc.) to view.
Crystal Reports also goes further in allowing you to save your report in data interchange format (DIF) or directly into a Word file, and allows you to deliver it via Lotus Notes, Exchange, or MAPI if installed.
Crystal Enterprise also makes the following scenario possible:

The product comes out of the box with a complex array of possibilities to allow you to control scheduling from only a few desktops and have the processing take place on different servers depending on the workload and network configuration. Needless to say, it can be rather cumbersome and scary to consider the administration of it all.

To simplify the startup, buy a powerful desktop machine and call it your Crystal Enterprise Server1 (for example). Assign it a network login and a login to your CMMS database, and you are ready. Install Crystal Enterprise on that machine, and make sure it is secured and backed up regularly; tie it into your uninterruptible power supply for your network (expand it at additional cost as needed), and you are ready to go.

Additionally, Crystal Enterprise will save previous runs of a report. If you obtain a request for a report generated by Crystal Enterprise five months ago, it will still be accessible from within Crystal Enterprise. You can retrieve it, and send or print it again as needed, thus providing some functionality of a report repository application.
A word about saving reports in other formats, especially Excel. Reports generally contain headers, labels, multiple levels of grouping, font manipulation, and other text-type data. This can make the spreadsheet format rather difficult to use.

In Access, you can get around this by building your reports on queries that handle virtually all your calculations first, and the report makes it look nice and adds headers and grouping.
In Crystal, although you can create queries and base your reports on them, a couple of other options may work better. Reports can be designed with minimal headers and either no groupings, or view the report first, hide the drill downs, and then save the report—it will look and work much better as a spreadsheet.
Crystal (aka Seagate) Analysis is an excellent way to create spreadsheet views of your data that work properly as spreadsheets. It also has on-line analytical processing (OLAP) capabilities.

Which tool do you use?
In terms of which tool to use, both are recommended. Access is an excellent tool for quickly creating queries for diagnostic use, or for answering questions now. It also is a great tool to use for creating a standalone database for system administration use which contains queries and reports for that purpose.
Wading through the data model or entity diagram to find the correct tables every time can be cumbersome. Access also can be used for setting up one or more databases that contain common tables by module or function that you need to use more frequently. So if your CMMS has 150 basic tables, but your work order-related queries only hit 20 of them, a database can be created that has all the appropriate links.
Crystal Reports will typically design more production-type reports that you will want to use and distribute. Crystal Enterprise will provide you with the scheduling tool, as well as a report repository containing both a history of reports run on schedule as well as reports to run.

Final word
CMMS systems come with a set of standard reports. Generally, the number is increased with each major release. Still, they never seem to be enough. Understanding the tools at your disposal, and the relationships within the database, will bring you a long way toward quickly addressing query and report requests.
Access is most likely your best choice for a desktop database solution. It is probably already available to you and support is available within your organization. Most likely, you will not need to purchase another database solution. If you have one already (such as Lotus Approach), it will have similar capabilities. If you understand them, then you need only apply the query/report capability to your CMMS database.

Crystal Reports is a little more difficult to decide on. There are numerous report writers and decision support software available, from both the manufacturers of databases and business intelligence tools. For example, Oracle, Sybase, IBM-DB2, and Informix all provide report writing solutions as standalone or integrated applications. In addition to Seagate (Crystal products), you will find products from Cognos (PowerPlay/Impromptu), the SAS Institute, Corvu, Information Builders, Computer Associates, Micro Strategy, Business Objects, and other providers. Before you purchase one of these tools, check in-house to find out if it is already available. MT

Robert C. Baldwin, CMRP, Editor

He documents the expected return and walks the request through the company's internal funding process, but he gets stopped cold by the financial gatekeeper with: "But that's new technology." And he goes away empty handed.

That story from the technology vendor called to mind some tips from Thomas Edison on "selling" new technology that I heard 10 years ago at a conference keynote delivered by Wayne Burkan, a futurist from Alternative Visions, Farmington Hills, MI.

My notes show that Burkan gleaned eight selling points from Edison's notebooks—perceived advantage, compatibility, simplicity, divisibility, communicability, reversibility, relative costliness, and lesser failure consequences. The conclusion is that you can sell almost anything if you have a good case for all of the points, but you will sell nothing if you miss on the first or last: perceived advantage and lesser failure consequence.

The presentation stuck in my head because of the way Burkan tied these important points to how Edison may have sold his new technology of electric lighting.

His case for perceived advantages would include the points that electric lighting is cleaner than gas lighting and easier to use. Electric lighting could be installed one room at a time (divisibility), required only the click of a switch for illumination (simplicity), and could be dismantled and taken out (reversibility).

The clincher might have been lesser failure consequence. If the electric lighting failed, the consequence was darkness. If gas lighting failed, the consequence could easily be fire, explosion, and death.

Unfortunately, most people are risk averse and the threat of a loss has a greater impact on a decision than the possibility of an equivalent gain. This is especially true today in a turbulent economy where selling future gain can be more difficult.

When you make your case for investment in new technology, you must work the money bags as if you are Thomas Edison selling electric lighting. Go into the meeting with a convincing argument for all eight selling points. Anything less, and you may come across as not fully committed, and unworthy of financial support. MT

Robert M. Williamson, Strategic Work Systems, Inc.

As a maintenance technician you will have employment security if you have the skills and knowledge to be a proficient technician: One who knows how to perform preventive/predictive maintenance, one who knows how to locate the root causes of problems, and one who knows how to make efficient and effective repairs as part of a high-performing maintenance team. Why? Because maintenance technicians with your expertise are in high demand, and there is a rapidly declining number of people in the labor market with that expertise. It is simple supply and demand—increasing demand, declining supply.

As a maintenance manager, supervisor, or plant engineer you will have employment security if you have skills and knowledge to be a proficient maintenance and reliability leader: One who leads high-performing teams of maintenance technicians in proactive, planned, scheduled, preventive/predictive, and efficient and effective corrective maintenance. Why? Because maintenance and reliability leaders with your expertise are also in high demand, and, you guessed it, are in short supply.

Excellent maintenance and reliability skills and knowledge are in peak demand in today's work environment and labor market, and the demand has been increasing at an alarming rate. The problem is that many people working in the maintenance field today are stuck with the same old skill sets they had years ago.

Many manufacturing plants and other equipment-dependent facilities require higher levels of equipment performance and reliability than ever before. These new levels take focused maintenance and reliability leadership coupled with a skilled and knowledgeable team of maintenance technicians.

Here comes the dilemma. As a leader, your employment security, and your sanity, largely depend on the skills and knowledge of the maintenance technicians who work for you. The more proficient your technicians are the more job security you have. The opposite is also true: the more inefficient and ineffective your maintenance technicians are the more your security is threatened.

We have seen an increasing number of plant engineers, maintenance managers, and the like get extremely frustrated and overwhelmed at their workload because of the skill sets of their maintenance technicians. Their plants and facilities became more and more reactive to their maintenance approach—there were not enough people to do all the repairs and still keep up with the preventive/predictive maintenance work. Then, the maintenance leaders became more reactive in their work by default. They ran out of time to be proactive, to plan, to lead improvements in maintenance and reliability.

What about the maintenance technicians? The good ones move on to better jobs, jobs where they can continue to do rewarding work, to learn, to improve the equipment they are responsible for. The ones stuck in the same old skills set tend to stick around; the maintenance workload grows, overtime pay increases, and they know their way around the plant. They generally want to do good work and work to the best of their ability. But they struggle to improve equipment performance and reliability, putting their jobs, and the business, in jeopardy.

One important, and often ignored, answer to this dilemma of skills shortages and job loss is training. The skills and knowledge of today's maintenance technicians must match the needs of the equipment and processes they are responsible for.

However, formal maintenance and reliability training is in very short supply. Many of the strong vocational-technical schools of the past have dwindled to very few who offer maintenance-related skills training. Now it is mandatory that manufacturing companies, institutions, facilities, and all employers of maintenance technicians establish formal training and qualification programs for their people.

There are three basic electrical hazards that cause injury and death: shock, arc-flash, and arc-blast.

Shock Current can pass through the human body's nervous or vascular systems, and across the surface of the body. The current required to light a 71/2 W, 120 V lamp, passing through the chest, can cause death. Of those killed while working on voltages below 600 V, half were intentionally working on "hot" energized equipment. Most electrocutions can be avoided with proper training, planning, job preparation, procedures, and equipment.

Arc-flash (extremely high temperature conductive plasma and gases resulting from an arc fault incident). As many as 80 percent of all electrical injuries are burns resulting from an arc-flash contact and ignition of flammable clothing. Arc temperatures can reach 35,000 F four times hotter than the suns surface. Arc-flash can cause second and third degree burns.

Arc-blast (pressure wave caused by the rapid expansion of gases and conducting material with high flying molten materials and shrapnel). An arc-blast may result in a violent explosion of circuit components and thrown shrapnel. The blast can destroy structures, and knock workers from ladders or across a room. The blast can rupture eardrums and collapse lungs.

Training, planning, and writing procedures
Provide training. Obviously, an important aspect of electrical safety is training. To be qualified, workers need training on the tasks and procedures (such as lockout/tagout procedures) that are essential to conducting their work in a safe manner.

Plan every job. Take the time to prepare a work plan that considers all possible eventualities. Before starting the job, think about each step and try to visualize the potential for hazards.

Anticipate unexpected results. When thinking about a job, break each task into small steps. Understand that plans can change, so be ready to modify the plan. Make sure that everyone involved in the job is working according to the same plan. Whenever work is required near an electrical hazard, a written plan is needed to outline the scope of the job.

Use procedures as tools. Procedures are the best way to help you prepare, execute, and complete a job. Like any tools, make sure procedures are maintained.

Identify the hazard. After your work plan is complete, review each step. Consider that the equipment might be perfectly safe under normal conditions and very unsafe when systems are not working properly. Also consider potential hazards that may be unrelated to electrical energy.

Assess people's abilities. Any person assigned to tasks associated with electrical energy must be qualified and trained for the job at hand. He or she must be able to identify electrical hazards, avoid exposure to those hazards, and understand the potential results of all action taken.

Providing an electrically safe work condition
Use the right tool for the job. Use the appropriate tools for the job at hand, keep them accessible and in good working condition. Using a screwdriver for a job that requires a fuse puller is an invitation to an accident.

Isolate the equipment. The best way to avoid an accident is to reduce exposure to the hazards present. Keep doors closed. Keep barricades in place. Install temporary voltage-rated blankets covering exposed live parts. Put the equipment in a safe working condition prior to performing maintenance. Lock out the disconnect.

Protect the person. Use the proper personal protection equipment for the job. This may include safety glasses or goggles, head protection, voltage-rated gloves, safety belts and harnesses, or flame-resistant clothing.

Minimize the hazard. If it is impossible to establish an electrically safe work environment, be sure to shut down every possible energy source. Understand that sometimes a de-energized circuit can become re-energized and do something to lessen the risk.

Audit these principles. A principle is something you believe in enough to be willing to do. Review these principles often; add to them as needed.

Lockout/Tagout
The Lockout/Tagout Standard was created to help reduce the death and injury rate caused by the unexpected energization or start-up of machines or the release of stored energy. Normal production operations, cords and plugs under exclusive control, and hot tap operations are not covered. This standard applies to energy sources such as electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, chemical, nuclear, and thermal.

Procedures for applying the lock/tag:

1. Before the shutdown, know the unit and power sources

2. Power down the equipment

3. Isolate the power source(s)

4. Apply the lock and/or tag

5. Use proper techniques, personal protective equipment, and test measuring devices to verify that the electrical circuit is de-energized

6. Release residual energy

7. Try to power up

Procedure for removing the lock/tag:

1. Inspect machine and/or equipment

2. Give notification to personnel

3. Remove the lockout/tagout device

National Fire Protection Association Standard NFPA 70E
There are a number of important electrical industry consensus standards that have indirect or direct impact on human safety. NFPA 70E, the "Standard for Electrical Requirements for Employee Workplaces," is one of the most important. This standard focuses on protecting people and identifies requirements that are considered necessary to provide a workplace that is generally free from electrical hazards.

NFPA 70E suggests that:

• Electrical hazards include shock and arc-flash.
• The best way to avoid injury or incident is to establish an electrically safe work condition prior to beginning work.
• Procedures and training are extremely important if injury is to be avoided.
• Shock and flash protection boundaries determined and adhered to.

NFPA 70E identifies the requirements for enhanced personal safety. It is an extremely important national consensus standard and must be considered to define the requirements for an overall electrical safety program.

IP20 (Finger Safe) ratings
The NFPA 70E requires that a guard be used to prevent access to voltages above 50 V. Guarding and the installation of insulating barriers must be completed if work is to be performed while the equipment is energized.

IP20 is often referred to as the "Finger-Safe" rating for electrical components such as a disconnect fuse holder. It refers to the fact that a probe, the approximate size of a finger, must not be able to access or make contact with hazardous, energized parts. Live parts that could easily be touched while resetting, adjusting, or replacing nearby components must be provided with protection against direct contact to at least the IP20 rating.

Electrical hazard heat facts
The heat generated from electrical hazards kills and maims. Consider the following:

• No material on earth can withstand temperatures of 35,000 F without vaporizing.
• Copper expands to 67,000 times its original volume when vaporized and can be inhaled into human lungs with debilitating or fatal results.
• Skin temperature of 200 F for more than one-tenth of a second will cause incurable, third degree burns—consider the damage to human skin exposed to the heat resulting from an arc-flash.
• Serious or fatal burns can occur at distances of more than 10 feet from the arc-flash source.

Designing an electrical system--for safety
It is not enough to focus just on work practices and the worker. The first step in providing a safer work place is designing and retrofitting the electrical system with specific safeguards. There are a number of things that can be implemented including the following:

Isolate the circuit. Electrical systems must be designed to support preventive maintenance, with easy access to the equipment. Designers need to make it easy to isolate equipment for repair with a disconnecting means that provides for proper implementation of Lockout/Tagout procedures. Install disconnects with permanent lockout provisions within sight of all motors and driven machinery.

Cover exposed components. Equipment must be "Finger-Safe" IP20 where possible to avoid potential contact with energized conductors. It is not always possible to de-energize the equipment before working on it. Specify electrical components that are IP20 "Finger-Safe."

Limit the energy. Circuits should also be designed to limit the available arc-flash energy. The use of current limiting overcurrent devices can help to reduce the flash energy. This will provide for improved protection for both equipment and employees. Use current-limiting fuses or current-limiting circuit breakers.

Retrofit the fuses. If the electrical system is an existing fusible system, upgrade the fuses to the most current-limiting fuse types. This measure provides a greater degree of current-limitation if an arc-flash incident occurs.

Electrical hazard victim first aid
As part of your safety program know the name, location, and phone number of the nearest burn center medical facility.

• Have a victim in burning clothing drop and roll to extinguish flames.
• Cool the burn with water or saline for a few minutes or until the skin returns to normal temperature.
• Remove constricting items such as shoes, belts, jewelry, and tight collars.
• Elevate burned limbs to reduce swelling.
• Handle the victim with care as he may have broken bones or spinal injuries.
• Treat for shock. Maintain body temperature; do not give anything by mouth. Administer high concentrations of oxygen, if available.
• Keep the victim warm and as comfortable as possible during transport to the medical facility. Cover victims with clean, dry sheets or blankets. Wounds should be covered with sterile dressings or clean sheets.
• Have someone familiar with the incident immediately inform the medical staff of vital details of the incident. This helps the medical staff diagnose injuries more quickly and more accurately. MT
  

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Information supplied by Cooper Bussmann, 144 Old State Rd., St. Louis, MO 63021.

Simply put, infrared cameras produce thermographic images or thermograms that relate to the temperature of the photographed item. Infrared cameras or software convert those images to a scale that creates color differences to represent temperature differences. Most of these devices are small handheld units similar in size and operation to a consumer video recording camera.

The Internet offers a virtual library of information, techniques, and tips for beginners as well as seasoned professionals.

Image galleries and streaming video
Infrared thermography is a visual science, so the Internet's ability to include graphics allows progressive web sites to offer specific examples of conditions that were diagnosed with an infrared camera.

FLIR streams a professional video overview that may be helpful in selling a new program to management. Another site offering streaming movie clips featuring infrared applications is www.thermoteknix.com. Indigo Systems features an image gallery with visible light and thermal images as well as QuickTime movies. Raytheon Infrared also offers infrared movies featuring applications. A fast connection and Windows Media Player make these movies more enjoyable although access is available for slower connections.

Independent thermographers are often one of the best sources for nonbiased information. Boldstar Infrared, Thermoscan Inc., and Stockton Infrared offer a wide variety of thermograms in their infrared image galleries. These sites also offer extensive application papers and case histories for PdM, energy, roof, and process applications for infrared cameras. For advanced thermographers, try www.kleinfeldtechnical.com for more complex infrared applications.

Infrared Solutions offers a virtual camera demonstration online where you can actually operate the camera from your computer desktop. Also providing product information is Land Infrared.

R/CM¹ offers a free streaming online training session entitled "Infrared Thermography: What's Hot in P/PM." This course requires Windows or Real Media Player as well as a quick registration.

Online infrared networks
IR/INFO is a new infrared web site with comprehensive links, articles, and an e-mail discussion list. The International Society of Professional Thermographers (ISPoT) has formed an e-mail discussion list. To join the lists simply send e-mail to ISPoT-subscribe@topica.com Both of these lists are productive for anyone interested in infrared. You can unsubscribe from either list automatically at any time.

Most of the infrared training companies offer valuable information, message boards, image galleries, and full course descriptions and schedules. Visit Infraspection Institute, Snell Infrared, ITC, and the Academy of Infrared Thermography. Several of these sites also offer free e-mail newsletters that are quite useful. Be sure to visit the message boards often as new questions and answers are posted daily.

These are just a few of the sites that you may find useful as you search for infrared resources online. We are always interested in web sites you can suggest for future columns and any feedback about how helpful you found this one. MT